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jewish英文的意思为:犹太人的;有关犹太人的;犹太教的;信犹太教的
例句:
1、Was it emigration to a jewish state in palestine
这样一个犹太国建在哪里?是巴勒斯坦吗?
2、The movement has become a powerful force in jewish life .
这在犹太人的生活中已经成了一股强大的力量。
3、Christian and jewish arbitration is well-organised .
基督教和犹太教的仲裁就得到了很好的组织履行。
4、Who are these belligerent leftist jewish professors ?
这些有好战心激进的犹太教授是谁?
5、In biblical times two jewish temples stood here .
在圣经时代两座犹太寺庙坐落在这里。
jewish的英语怎么说
jewish 英[ˈdʒu:ɪʃ] 美[ˈdʒuɪʃ]adj.犹太人的,犹太教徒的; 犹太人作风的2023-01-03 21:25:081
departure、jewish、、lecture、、这英语怎么念?
departure n. 离开;出发;违背。 谐音:底趴撤jewish adj. 犹太人的,犹太教徒的;犹太人作风的 。谐音:竹丝lecture n. 演讲;讲稿;教训vt. 演讲;训诫vi. 讲课;讲演谐音:来客车2023-01-03 21:25:2211
犹太人用英语怎么说
犹太人又称犹太民族,属闪米特人,人种为欧罗巴人种闪米特-含米特亚种,是广泛分布于世界各国的一个民族。犹太人的民族、 文化 和宗教信仰之间具有很强的关联性,犹太教是维系全体犹太人之间认同感的传统宗教。那么你知道犹太人用英语怎么说吗?下面来学习一下吧。 犹太人的英语说法1: Jew (男) 犹太人的英语说法2: Jewess (女) 犹太人的英语说法3: jewish(犹太人的) 犹太人的相关 短语 : 美国犹太人 American Jews ; 波兰犹太人历史 History of the Jews in Poland 上海犹太人 Shanghai Ghetto 犹太人在中国 Juden in China ; Chinese Jew ; Jews in china 犹太人的英语例句: 1. Tomorrow night at sundown, the Jewish holiday of Passover begins. 明天晚上太阳下山的时候,犹太人的逾越节便开始了。 2. Slowly Jewish communities were reconstituted and Jewish life began anew. 渐渐地,犹太社区得到重建,犹太人的生活重新开始。 3. The matchmaker has been an important member of Jewish communities for centuries. 数世纪以来,媒人一直在犹太人社区扮演着重要角色。 4. Israel offers automatic citizenship to all Jews who want it. 以色列为所有希望获得公民身份的犹太人敞开大门。 5. In 1990, 200,000 Soviet Jews resettled on Israeli territory. 在1990年,20万名苏联犹太人在以色列重新定居。 6. French Jews generally had been assimilated into the nation"s culture. 法裔犹太人已经被这个国家的文化同化了。 7. The Jewish feast of Passover began last night. 犹太人的宗教节日逾越节昨晚开始了。 8. the local Jewish community 当地的犹太人群体 9. The Jews are scattered over the world. 犹太人分散在世界各地. 10. For two millennia, exogamy was a major transgression for Jews. 两千年来, 异族通婚一直是犹太人的一大禁忌. 11. He was born a Jew in first century Palestine. 他是出生于1世纪巴勒斯坦的犹太人. 12. He descended from Jewish stock. 他是犹太人的后裔. 13. The Jews cast him out of the temple. 犹太人把他赶出了寺庙. 14. Europeans and Jews do not readily assimilate. 欧洲人和犹太人不易同化. 15. The Jews are scattered over the world. 犹太人分散在世界各地.2023-01-03 21:26:361
Jewish用英语怎么读求谐音
Jewish [ "dʒuːɪʃ]adj. 犹太人的, 犹太族的2023-01-03 21:26:491
英语单词delicate 和 Jewish 用谐音分别怎么读
delicate 谐音读“爹里ki特”Jewish 谐音读“猪以许”2023-01-03 21:27:001
jewish是什么意思
adj. 犹太的,犹太人的2023-01-03 21:27:097
jewish和jews的区别
前者是形容词,后者是名词。jewish----------------------adj.犹太人的,犹太教徒的; 犹太人作风的jews-------------------------n.犹太教徒( Jew的名词复数 ); 犹太人2023-01-03 21:27:483
Jewish 什么意思?Jews呢?
Jewish;犹太Jews ;犹太人2023-01-03 21:28:136
犹太人翻译为英语?
Jew (男);Jewess (女)2023-01-03 21:28:574
"犹太"的英文是什么
Judah2023-01-03 21:29:252
犹太人的英语单词怎么写
Jew2023-01-03 21:29:445
jewishtraditions为何用复数importantthings可写importants吗
因为tradition是可数名词不可以2023-01-03 21:30:192
犹太人单词如何拼写
犹太人Jew (男); Jewess (女)2023-01-03 21:30:327
犹太人的名称及语源
中文中的“犹太人”,起源于希伯来语中的“יְהוּדִי”,古时亦称“术忽”、“斡脱”等。而其宗教犹太教(Judaism)音译为中文的“一赐乐业教”(音近“以色列”),另由于其独特的宗教习俗,又被古代中国人称为“蓝帽回回”、“挑筋教”等。英语中的“Jew”一词起源于中古英语的“Gyw, Iewe”,后者来自古法语中的“giu”以及更早的“juieu”,最初则可以追溯至拉丁语的“Iudaeum”。 拉丁语“Iudaeus”意为“Judaean”,即“来自Judaea地区的人”。该词本身与希腊语中的同义词“Ἰουδαῖος”一样,是从中古时期的亚拉姆语的“Y"hūdāi”、希伯来语的“יְהוּדִי”、“Yehudi”;“יְהוּדִים”、“Yehudim”中演化而来的,含义是“犹大族(tribe of Judah)人”或“犹大王国(kingdom of Judah)的国民”。希伯来语的犹太人写作“יְהוּדִי”。拉迪诺语中对应的单词为:“ג׳ודיו”、“Djudio”(sg.);“ג׳ודיוס”、“Djudios”(pl.);“意第绪语:יִיד:“Yid””;“יִידן”、“Yidn”。其他语言中,犹太人分别表示为:“Jude”(德语)、“juif”(法语)、“jøde”(丹麦语)、“judío”(西班牙语),但有些语言中也以“希伯来”的音译来指称犹太人,如“Ebreo”(意大利语)和“俄语:Еврей”(俄语)。德语单词“Jude”发音作“[ˈjuːdə]”,是单词Yiddish的词源。(更全面的介绍请参见犹太人多语言译文对照列表。) 根据《美国传统英语词典》(The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,2000年第四版)的解释:“一般认为,将名词Jew作为修饰性形容词的用法,如犹太人律师(Jew lawyer)和犹太人伦理观(Jew ethics)等类似的说法是带有严重侵犯性的粗俗语言。一般应使用“Jewish”作为形容词来表述带有犹太人特征的事物。但是有些人对此过于谨慎,甚至在本可以使用Jew的场合也索性代之以Jewish,例如“议会里有数名犹太人。”完全可以表达为没有侵犯性的“There are now several Jews on the council”,但害怕引起误会的人会委婉地使用“Jewishpeople”或“persons of Jewish background”。其实这种说话适得其反,会让人误解为Jew是一个带有负面评价的名词。2023-01-03 21:31:181
犹太人为什么叫犹太人
犹太人是原指犹大支派(以色列人12支派之一)或犹大王国(以色列国分裂后与北方10支派所成立的以色列王国对立)的人民。犹太人总数约1400万,570万人在美国,其余在世界各地。全体犹太人本来统称希伯来人,自进占巴勒斯坦起至举族被掳往巴比伦为止,又称以色列人。经过流亡生活,只有原属犹大王国的人仍然保持民族特征,其他10个支派于公元前721年亚述灭亡北方王国后四散而同化于其他民族。因此,犹太人一词仅指原属犹大王国之人。2023-01-03 21:31:473
犹太人用英语怎么说阿
Jew2023-01-03 21:32:017
犹太人是什么意思?
犹太人是原指犹大支派(以色列人12支派之一)或犹大王国(以色列国分裂后与北方10支派所成立的以色列王国对立)的人民。犹太人总数约1400万,570万人在美国,其余在世界各地。全体犹太人本来统称希伯来人,自进占巴勒斯坦起至举族被掳往巴比伦为止,又称以色列人。经过流亡生活,只有原属犹大王国的人仍然保持民族特征,其他10个支派于公元前721年亚述灭亡北方王国后四散而同化于其他民族。因此,犹太人一词仅指原属犹大王国之人。2023-01-03 21:32:282
雾都孤儿的英文背景
Charles DIckens"s Oliver TwistOliver Twist: The Parish Boy抯 ProgressCharles Dickens created an astonishing collection of literary masterpieces each of which tightly grasped the attention of the audience. Dickens was able to maintain a writing schedule that would have exhausted any other author. In slightly more than thirty years, Dickens published more than twenty novels, acted as editor for a variety of literary journals, created his own magazine, worked as a freelance reporter, and executed a series of charismatic public readings. His popularity established Dickens as one of the first 揷elebrities.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> Crowds brimming with eager fans would accumulate as Dickens bellowed out the charming lines of his tantalizing novels. His significance and notoriety are still easily identified in contemporary literary cannons. Although his books sold and the audience waited on edge for the next installment of his works, Dickens was not given completely favorable reviews to every text. Oliver Twist was begun in February 1837 and continued as monthly installments in Bentley抯 Miscellany until April of 1839. Dickens originally titled the novel Oliver Twist: The Parish Boy抯 Progress but it has since been shorten to simply Oliver Twist. Dickens finished writing the novel in the London of 1838 and the first edition of the novel was found on shelves in November of 1838. The novel falls into the genre of a children抯 detective story but the novel also contains an aspect of social protest as Dickens details the Poor Laws and workhouses. Dickens uses his hyperbolic irony and sentimentalism to create characters currently residing in the underworld of industrial London. The themes that appear within the text are the delineation between good and evil, the hypocritical attitudes and behaviors of public institutions, and the ultimately flawed theory of individualism. Dickens uses mistaken identities and familial ties to create a story, which closely details the journey of a virtuous orphan through the mean streets of poverty (Spark Notes: Oliver Twist).While Dickens was composing Oliver Twist, he was also working as editor of Bentleys Miscellany. As an author, Dickens rarely completely finished one work before beginning an entirely new project. For example, Pickwick Papers was not completed prior to his beginning of Oliver Twist. Nor was Oliver Twist completed before Dickens had moved on to Nicholas Nickleby. Master Humphrey抯 Clock and The Old Curiosity Shop were soon to follow. Dickens wrote at a fevered pace which would have been daunting to other authors. In addition to his rapid publication of novels, Dickens was also able to create strikingly differing works. His first serially published novel, Pickwick Papers, was fully of comic charisma; however, Gilbert Keith Chesterton states that Oliver Twist 搃s by far the most depressing of all his books?(Chesterton). Oliver Twist is the story of an orphan who unwittingly stumbles upon his hidden fortune. The tale is one that vividly depicts the dismal prospects of one born into a workhouse without parents and is forced to survive on little or no compassion. Oliver is unloved and unwanted from the open of the novel. However, as the novel progresses, Oliver finds that his honest and kind disposition win him a variety of friends in high places. Although Fagin and the other street urchins continually seek to ruin Oliver抯 connections, Oliver抯 faithful heart find a home in the end. The novel demonstrates the benefits of a good will that may be found in the most unlikely of people. Oliver抯 merits carry him through life and away from the poverty that capture those with weaker morals. In the conclusion of the tale, Oliver finds himself among those with equally good manners and morals. His situation is only improved through the inevitable triumph of good over evil.Dickens initially published Oliver Twist in the format of serial publication. Dickens used the process of creating monthly installments to create a high level of suspense, leaving the audience eagerly awaiting the next installment in the series. Oliver Twist was reportedly 揳 part of everyday conversations, just as top rated television shows are for us today.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> Dickens effectively used the publishing techniques to his benefit; he was able to work the system (Oliver Twist桾he Author and His Times).Interestingly, Dickens抯 personal environment was greatly shaken in both a happy manner and a sad one during the publishing of Oliver Twist. In May of 1837 Mary Hogarth died, devastating Dickens. Hogarth, his sister-in-law, was a dear friend and supporter of Dickens. Many critics speculate that the characters of Rose and Nancy were modeled after Dickens?companion Mary Hogarth. After Hogarth抯 death, Dickens feelings of abandonment seep into the world of Oliver. Oliver fears the loss of Rose as Dickens mourns the loss of Mary (Oliver Twist桾he Author and His Times). Catherine Dickens was also reported to have given birth to Charles, the first of ten children during this time (Victorian Web). The splendor of a new baby was contrasted with the great loss of a close friend. Dickens, in fact, was forced to take a break from his busy writing schedule to cope with the drastic changes that took place in his personal life at this time. The Poor Laws were established prior to the publication of the novel. The Poor Laws, according to The Victorian Web, were created to destroy the relief programs that were in play since 1601. The Poor Laws generated a system of workhouses. The workhouses allowed for a program of assistance that did not merely dole out money but rather doled out food, shelter, and clothing. The Poor Laws provided an answer to the declining laws that were supporting the impoverished. The problems were obvious: the current system left the aged uncared for, the children ignorant and uneducated, and the lower class population starving. King George III proposed a plan to:Stop the allowance system梩o deprive the magistracy of the power of ordering out-door relief梩o alter in certain case the constitution of parochial vestries梩o give large discretionary powers to the central commissioners梩o simplify the law of settlement and removal梩o render the mother of an illegitimate child liable to support it. Dickens[1] 366However, the workhouses proved to be yet another place to shove the poor. The theory may have been formed from noble ideals but the foundations were flawed. The boundaries and faults of the Poor Laws are blatantly exemplified in Oliver Twist. Oliver is forced to suffer the indignities of starvation, brutal treatment, and is damned to life in a workhouse. Dickens used his artistic talents to speak for the silent, to fight for the oppressed, and to champion those defeated. Dickens himself states: 揑t was my attempt, in my humble and far distant sphere, to dim the false glitter surrounding something which really did exist, by showing it in its unattractive and repulsive truth?(Dickens 6). Dickens used his literary engine to fuel the debate over the Poor Laws and to reveal the reality that so many unfortunate souls were forced to inhabit. The novel was received in a variety of ways. Many hailed the novel as a 搑unaway bestseller?and an encore to the highly prized Pickwick Papers. On the other hand, the Jewish population as well as other critics found the novel to be far too sentimental and lacking. One of the major issues raised by an entire community against the novels was the portrayal Fagin, the evil Jew. Milton Kerker in his article 揅harles Dickens, Fagin and Riah?states that Fagin may be the 搈ost grotesgue and villainous Jew in all of English literature.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> Fagin was found by the Jewish community to be a ruffian with the devil dwelling within his cold heart. In 1854 the Jewish Chronicle was outraged and presented the public with this criticism of Dickens. Later in 1863, Eliza Davis writes Dickens to question his portrayal of Fagin. Dickens responds to Davis by stating:I must take leave to say, that if there be any general feeling on the part of the intelligent Jewish people, that I have done them what you describe as 揳 great wrong,?they are a far less sensible, a far less just, and a far less good-tempered people than I have always supposed them to be. Fagin, in Oliver Twist, is a Jew, because it unfortunately was true of the time to which that story refers, that that class of criminal almost invariably was a Jew. Dickens 378The public did not openly object to the portrayal of Fagin until several years after the novel was originally published. However, despite the fact that Dickens maintained his innocence, Dickens did attempt to make alterations in the next edition of the novel to correct this offensive implication. In the 1867 edition of chapter 38, Fagin is referred to as 搕he Jew?more than 250 times. However, in later chapters he is referred to as 搕he Jew?only 32 times. This is thought to have been Dickens抯 attempt to reconcile Fagin抯 character with the Jewish community. Despite this characterization of Fagin and Dickens抯 wording changes, Dickens never openly abused a Jewish person nor did he openly practice anti-Semitic opinions (Kerker).Likewise, the Monthly Review of January 1839 demanded that Dickens used characters that are so low that sympathy cannot be created. The reviewer feels that although there were comic pieces worth noting, the ending does not comply with the standard notion that the evil ones must face strict consequences while the just are rewarded. The reviewer does not go so far as to claim Dickens to be an immoral writer but he does not treat the characters with the morals that would classify Dickens with the 揾ighest rank of our moral fictionists.?Dickens is yet again commended for openly stating the plea of the downtrodden but in this reviewer抯 opinion, the downtrodden are not moral enough to place Dickens in a higher class of fiction novelists (Dickens 403-405).Just as the Monthly Review questions the worth of such characters as Nancy, William Makepeace Thackeray also claims that such characters are not worth the sympathy or the attention of the audience. Thackeray does allow for Dickens抯 popularity but questions his use of setting and characters. True, Dickens can charm an audience like none other. True, one must continually read Dickens to satisfy some strange need. Unfortunately, the fact remains that Thackeray does not believe there is much to be gained by closely examining the life of the poor and forgotten (Dickens 408-410). In the opinion of Thackeray, would it not be much more prudent to bestow such kind sympathies upon a worthier class of characters? Character such as Amelia Osborne and Becky Sharp are worthy of moral scrutiny but Oliver Twist and the like shall remain in the gutter, below the view of the mainstream population.Early reviews from The Examiner, September 10,1837, claim that this novel is an 揺xact painting?of the reality Dickens wished to present to the public. Dickens was praised for his capture of the emotions surrounding death of Nancy and the detailing of Oliver抯 life as an orphan. Although the reviewer is surprised to see Dickens making use of the Poor Law Debates in the first chapters of the novel, the reviewer understands the philanthropy that Dickens is attempting to inspire (Dickens 399-401). In conclusion of this review, the author states: 揥e leave him most reluctantly, and so will every read who has any capacity to see and feel whatsoever is most loveable, hateful, or laughable, in the character of the everyday life about him?(401).The Spectator states on November 24, 1838, that Dickens 揾as genius to vivify his observation.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> Dickens is complimented for his powerful use of pathos and his description of truth. The reviewer admires Dickens抯 ability to find good in all humanity despite the dirty surroundings of unfortunates such as Oliver. Dickens抯 style is commended to be capable of an effective use of language while never sounding forced (Dickens 401-402).The Literary Gazette, and Journal of the Belles Lettres declares on November 24, 1838, that Dickens has 背ug deep into the human mind; and he has nobly directed his energies to the exposure of evils梩he workhouse, the starving school, the factory system, and many other things, at which blessed nature shudder and recoiled.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> Dickens抯 ability to capture the suffering of Oliver intrigues the reading audience. Those who are far removed from the factories and the workhouses are suddenly acutely aware of the plea of the poor and the corruption of the Poor Laws. Dickens抯 has made a successful journey into social activism with the guidance of Oliver and his band of companions (Dickens 402-403).The Quarterly Review of 1839 published a glowing review of the novel. The reviewer believed Dickens to be 揳 sign of the times?and as such, he provoked 搈ore interest than that of Halley抯 comet.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> The reviewer felt that not only did he write just enough and not too much, but also he wrote with enough vigor to demand that the public read the next installment. His popularity was unparalleled and his installments were always immediately read. Dickens manages to tell of 搑eal pain?while the novel lacks in false sentimentalism (Dickens 405-408). The reviewer states: 揌e deals truly with human nature, which never can degrade; he takes up everything, good, bad, or indifferent, which he works up into a rich alluvial deposit. He is natural, and that neve2023-01-03 21:32:381
Jewish museum(犹太人博物馆)和Daniel.Libeskind(建筑师)英文介绍
难找。。我试过了2023-01-03 21:32:442
在英语中,“国籍”和“民族”怎么区分?
国籍Nationality民族Nation2023-01-03 21:32:573
Jew什么意思?
jew ! 英[dʒuː] 美[dʒu ] v. 杀价;欺骗n. 犹太人;犹太教徒,守财奴2023-01-03 21:33:136
Jew 有复数吗
没有,这个单复数相同2023-01-03 21:33:366
英语翻译 基督教史
你给的原文只是片段,无法精确翻译此类宗教经典著作。参考附件《基督教会史》。2023-01-03 21:34:002
约瑟夫斯的简介
约瑟夫斯(Josephus): 约37--100 ,犹太历史学家和军人.原名约瑟夫.本.马赛厄斯.生于耶路撒冷.西元66年在反对罗马的犹太起义中他指挥一支加利利军队.在向罗马人投降时他施展手段获取优待,得以前往罗马,在那里写出几部关于犹太历史和宗教的著作,包括《犹太战争史》(History of the Jewish War,西元75--79年问世)和《犹太古事记》(Antiquities of the Jews,西元93年问世)卒于罗马生活于公元37年至100年的弗拉维乌斯·约瑟夫斯,虽然是以“犹太历史学家”留名于后世,但他一生的经历颇为复杂,且富有浓厚的戏剧性,似非“历史学家”一词可概括言之。约瑟夫斯诞生于罗马人统治下的耶路撒冷的一位高级教士家庭,强烈的宗教气息和父辈的熏陶,使小约瑟夫斯成了早熟的神童。就一般人而言,十四年华,只是刚从儿童时代跨入少年的门槛,稚气犹未脱尽,意识尚属朦胧。但14岁的约瑟夫斯,竟能以自己丰富的学识和雄辩的口才与大祭司辩论深奥的犹太法问题,令人叹为观止。到了16岁,胸怀大志的约瑟夫斯已不满足闭门苦读,他费时三年外出旅行,在蛮荒之地留下了行行足迹,展读了自然和社会这本大书。此后,他曾加入过严格律己、笃信教义、仇视罗马统治者的法利赛派。2023-01-03 21:34:091
jewish religion怎么读
jewish religion犹太教In the Jewish religion, we focus more on deeds than words. 而犹太教,我们重点是看行为,超过语言。2023-01-03 21:34:192
german-jewish是什么意思
德国犹太人,2023-01-03 21:34:271
哪位朋友能给些英语介绍希特勒的文章啊
Adolf Hitler is remembered in modern history as a tyrant, a dictator, the No.1 war criminal of Nazi Germany. Nowadays in Europe and other parts of the world, any speech of his positive role will be categorized into neo-Fascism and be widely condemned. However, some fragments of past years might remind us of a man less vicious than commonly believed. After the WWI, Germany signed the notorious Versailles Treaty, which brought tremendous infamy to the country. Hitler was appointed as a political officer in the army out of an excellent corporal. He imbued his soldiers with hatred toward the Jews and Marxists, for he believed it was their revolutions that rendered Germany"s failure. He became the 54th member of the German Worker"s Party (later the National Socialist German Workers Party, i.e. Nazi) and soon was promoted as the propaganda manager, which contributed a great deal to his reputation as an orator in the years ahead. Hitler enchanted thousands with his charismatic and mystery-oriented eloquence. Before long, the Nazi became the second largest party of the Weimar Republic, and Hitler established his unparallel prestige in this extremist party. In contrast to the government"s reputation of weakness and failure, the Nazis emerged as a hard-liner, an anti-Semitist and a Versailles opponent, which catered exactly to the public will at that time. After a poorly organized revolt against the government, Hitler was sentenced 5 years in prison where he wrote his “masterpiece” Mein Kampf, elaborating his ideology of Aryan"s superiority. Nazis were popular among the Catholics and the entrepreneurs, because they considered the Nazis at least less a risk to them than the Communists. Hitler"s day came in 1933, when President Hindenburg very reluctantly appointed him chancellor, after repeated requests from prominent industrialists. The death of Hindenburg in 1934 further helped Hitler evolve into a dictator. During his rule, he took control over the mess media, conspired the arson on the Reichstag and used this excuse to annihilate his rivals the Communists, launched a law against marriage between the Jews and the Aryans, plotted the Crystal Night, expanded the army, reoccupied the Ruhr region, fought the unemployment by reconstructing the infrastructure destroyed during WWI. His moves revived the national pride and the state power as well, winning overwhelming support from the citizens except from the Jews. With his awesome propaganda machine, Hitler became a hero to his nation. If Hitler should have stopped here, would history remember him as another Franklin Roosevelt? Sadly, in history, there are no ifs.2023-01-03 21:34:343
“犹太星项链”是什么东西
jewish star 犹太星又成为大卫之星、大卫之盾、所罗门封印,六芒星形状,是犹太人的象征标志,如果你见过以色列的国旗,在他们国旗的正中间就是一颗大卫之星。至于说jewish star necklace,就好像基督教的不同样式的十字架项链一样,也是用基本的形态不同的艺术样式,附上一张比较标准的jewish star necklace给你参考。2023-01-03 21:34:451
爱因斯坦英文介绍
爱因斯坦,好像是美国人2023-01-03 21:34:579
希特勒为什么要杀犹太人?犹太人做了什么要被灭绝?
希特勒是个极端的种族主义者和反犹主义者。他在《我的奋斗》中写道:“雅利安人的最大对立面就是犹太人。”他把犹太人看作是世界的敌人,一切邪恶事物的根源,一切灾祸的根子,人类生活秩序的破坏者。这些观点成了希特勒后来屠杀数百万犹太人,企图灭绝犹太人的理论依据。究其原因大致可以从以下四个方面加以透视:1、历史的原由。在历史上,欧洲人对犹太人持有成见。为了阐明问题,有必要对犹太民族的历史作一个简单的机关的回顾。犹太人的远祖是古代闪族的支脉希伯莱人,公元前,他们的祖先曾聚居生活在阿拉伯马勒斯坦土地上。公元1世纪,罗马帝国攻占巴基斯坦后,犹太人举行过多次大规模反抗罗马占领者的起义,但都遭到了罗马统治者的血腥镇压。到公元135年的犹太人起义再义惨遭失败为止,在这1个多世纪的时间里,罗马统治者屠杀了百万犹太人,最后把还把余者全部赶出马勒斯坦土地,使他们流散到西欧完全处于落后的小生产的农牧社会,土地被人们视为最珍贵的财富,商业则是人们鄙视的行业。犹太人逃往西欧后,当地的封建主们非常歧视他们,不许他们占有土地,只许他们经营商业。不知是历史过错教育了他们,还是生死磨难砥砺了他们,或者说这本来就是历史赋予的机遇,总之,由这一切所构成的历史集合体,铸就了犹太人的特质,使得他们聪明起来,坚强起来。他们不仅在困境中顽强地繁衍生息,而且逐渐地富有了。公元13至15世纪,欧洲开始进入资本主义社会,当地新兴资产阶级同那些经商致富的新兴的犹太人资本家们,产生了利益冲突,噩运再次降临到犹太人的头上。现实利益的冲突加上宗教信仰的差异,大批犹太人被迫流往东欧及美洲各国,开始了历史上的犹太人第二次逃亡。不幸的是,这种反对犹太人的意识,居然演变成了一种文化沉淀,在某些国家和地区一直“遗传”到现代。尤其是进入本世纪后的德及奥民族,反犹情绪与日俱增,希特勒及其追随者就是其中的典型代表。2、宗教的情结。基督教是世界上流传最广、信教人数最多的宗教。在欧洲,特别是西欧,人们普遍信仰基督耶稣。虽说基督教的经典《圣经》之一的《旧约全书》,原是犹太教的经典,两教之间有着密切的历史渊源,但基督教教义认为,是耶稣的12门徒之一的犹大为了30块银币而出卖了上帝之子,是犹太人将耶稣钉死在十字架上,这就造成了基督徒们在情感上对犹太人的仇视。所以说信奉基督教的欧洲人在宗教感情上是很难接纳犹太人。这种宗教感情的社会化,又逐渐衍化成一种大众化的厌恶犹太人的社会心态。同样,这种社会心态也作为一种文化沉淀。世代“遗传”,并随着岁月的推移,逐渐与社会经济政治相结合,使之成为一种随时可以被利用的社会政治的潜在力量。当这种潜在的东西某个(些)政治野心家利用时,就会像火山一样喷发,成为一种疯狂的社会驱动力。应该看到,当时的德及奥民族的内部,民族主义思潮盛行,原有的宗教情绪在现实利益冲突的激化下,使人们本来已有的反犹情绪更加激烈,从而加剧了对犹太人的仇视。在这种社会氛围的熏陶下,希特勒的“仇犹反犹”观点逐步形成,并迅速成为了这股社会情绪的主导,一方面,当时德及奥民族仇犹反犹的社会情绪极大地刺激着他的政治野心,使其民族主义思想恶性膨胀,为其日后仇犹反犹灭犹政策和措施制造社会价值取向,培植政治力量。3、现实的需要。本世纪20年代末30年代初,爆发了世界性经济危机,严重打击了德国,使其工业生产倒退到了上世纪末的水平,国力渐衰。深刻的经济危机不仅激化了国内的阶级矛盾,而且刺激了垄断资产阶级对外扩张的野心。“德意志民族必须从掠夺的土地和生产空间中寻找出路”,希特勒的这一争霸世界的主张,得到了德国垄断资产阶级的拥护和支持。然而,实施建立一个德意志民族的日耳曼帝国的罪恶计划需要巨额资金提供财力保证。在国力衰落的情况下,把手伸向富有的犹太人成为了他们的理所当然。另外,居住在欧洲各地的犹太人,较之于其他民族而言,不仅富有,而且素质也要高些。面对这样一个民族,希特勒及其党徒们,既感到仇恨,又觉得胆怯。在他们的心中,犹太人这个特殊的社会群体,是他们实现“第三帝国”美梦的严重威胁。这些,无疑加剧了希特勒对犹太人的仇恨和政治嫉恨。加上当时德国社会政治生活完全处在一种极端疯狂的症状之中,使希特勒的仇犹反犹观点不仅有了适当的社会环境,且得以迅速疯狂起来。4、狂暴的病态心理。希特勒是奥地利海关一个小官吏的私生子,从小缺少良好的教育,青少年时代整天流浪于维也纳和慕尼黑街头,铸就了他既自私又狂妄的性格。正如他小时的一位班主任老师后来回忆所说的那样:“希特勒缺乏自制力,至少被大家认为性格执拗,刚愎自用,自以为是和脾气暴躁。”加上他患有痉挛性的神经质,发起癫狂来甚至会趴在地上啃地毯边。从有关史料上可以看出,狂暴是希特勒性格的典型特征。例如,1942年的一天,纳粹德国武装部队外科医师扎尔·伯罗赫奉命去晋见希特勒,希特勒的爱犬就猛扑这位医师,吓得他魂不附体,医师被迫与它细声细语地说话,很快它就平静地趴在医师身边,把前肢搁在医师膝盖上,两眼温顺地看着他,并与他逗笑。希特勒见此情景暴跳如雷:“它是完全忠于我的惟一生物,可你把它骗去了,我要杀死它。”声音越来越高,简直到了嘶叫的地步,恕吼着威胁要监禁医生,类似这样的事,时有发生,狂暴如嫉恨,又造就了他的狠毒和残忍,希特勒是一个有严重病态心理的政治狂人。上述四大原因,如果孤立地看其中任何一个原因,都很难构成对犹太人的灭绝性仇杀。只有把这四大原因融合为一体时,才能产生确定性的使犹太民族在劫难逃的社会效应,而希特勒则是把这四大原因巧妙地结合在一起的魁首。首先,纳粹党打着当时在德国流行的民族主义和社会主义两块招牌,宣扬德意志民族是优秀民族,把犹太民族视为劣等民族。为了蛊惑人心,欺骗德国广大民众,希特勒对这种种族歧视理论从两个方面进行了周密的包装。一是按照他自己的社会逻辑,怕断章取义地摘取前人论述人口问题中的某些词句,拼凑成一个种族优劣的理论,为把犹太人打入劣等人种制造理论依据。二是利用早就深植于德及奥人心中的反犹意识和宗教情结,大肆鼓吹“犹太瘟疫”的谬论。经过希特勒的蓄意“嫁接”,使得这个理论再也不是一般意义上的种族歧视了。他利用历史的宗教的因素,为其灭绝犹太人而创设了广泛的社会基础,使得这一理论更加具有普遍的煽动性。希特勒一上台,之所以能够顺利推行一整套疯狂迫害犹太人的反犹灭犹政策,无疑得益于他这个荒谬绝伦的理论。其次,纳粹党还利用当时德国国内广大群众痛恨凡尔赛和约的心理,煽动复仇主义情绪,并把这种情绪转移到犹太人身上。在这四大原因中,现实的需要是最直接的要素,其它两方面的原因也是非常重要的因素,如果没有历史的原因和宗教的情结作为先导性条件,那么,即使现实再需要,也很难想象会达到如此疯狂和残忍的程度。只有当这四方面的原因聚合为一体时,才产生了那可怕可憎的充满血腥的驱动力。任何历史事件都是社会各种相关因素合力作用的产物,或者说是时事造就的。二战期间,600万犹太人惨遭杀害,希特勒当属罪魁。希特勒对犹太人特有的种族仇恨和政治嫉恨,是政治狂人病态心理的一种特殊反映。导致希特勒严重病态心理的“菌种”就是来自历史成见和宗教情结,恰好又得到了当时德国社会环境的孕育。确切地说,希特勒的严重病态心理与当时德国社会政治生活的疯狂病态是相辅相成的。一方面,疯狂的病态心理正是历史成见、宗教情结和现实需要三大原因的粘合剂;另一方面,这三大原因的聚合又把希特勒疯狂病态的心理推向了极端,从而引发了那场人类历史的大悲剧。2023-01-03 21:35:436
i am a jew有什么隐含的意思
如果那是个钻石,我就是犹太人。 意思是,那不是一个钻石,或那个不是一个好料什么的。 因为我不是jew.2023-01-03 21:36:079
犹太人用英语怎么说阿
2023-01-03 21:36:381
german-jewish是什么意思
德国犹太人,2023-01-03 21:36:441
jewish origin是什么意思
In my blood ,every sixteenth drop is of Jewish origin. 我有十六分之一的犹太人血统. every sixteenth跟one sixteenth一样,都是表示“十六分之一”的意思.2023-01-03 21:36:501
英语单词
英语单词列举如下所示:1、survey 调查;测验。2、add up 合计。3、upset 心烦意乱的;不安的,不适的。4、ignore不理睬;忽视。5、settle 安家;定居;停留。6、have got to 不得不;必须。7、concern (使)担心;涉及;关系到。8、be concerned about 关心;挂念。9、walk the dog溜狗。10、loose 松的;松开的。11、vet 兽医。12、go through 经历;经受。13、Amsterdam 阿姆斯特丹(荷兰首都)。14、Netherlands 荷兰(西欧国家)。15、Jewish 犹太人的;犹太族的。16、German 德国的;德国人的;德语的。17、partner 伙伴、合作者、合伙人。18、set down 记下;放下;登记。19、series 连续,系列。20、outdoors 在户外;在野外。21、spellbind 迷住;疑惑。22、on purpose 故意。23、in order to 为了。24、dusk 黄昏傍晚。25、thunder 打雷雷鸣。26、entire 整个的;完全的;全部的。2023-01-03 21:36:561
英语单词
英语单词列举如下所示:1、survey 调查;测验。2、add up 合计。3、upset 心烦意乱的;不安的,不适的。4、ignore不理睬;忽视。5、settle 安家;定居;停留。6、have got to 不得不;必须。7、concern (使)担心;涉及;关系到。8、be concerned about 关心;挂念。9、walk the dog溜狗。10、loose 松的;松开的。11、vet 兽医。12、go through 经历;经受。13、Amsterdam 阿姆斯特丹(荷兰首都)。14、Netherlands 荷兰(西欧国家)。15、Jewish 犹太人的;犹太族的。16、German 德国的;德国人的;德语的。17、partner 伙伴、合作者、合伙人。18、set down 记下;放下;登记。19、series 连续,系列。20、outdoors 在户外;在野外。21、spellbind 迷住;疑惑。22、on purpose 故意。23、in order to 为了。24、dusk 黄昏傍晚。25、thunder 打雷雷鸣。26、entire 整个的;完全的;全部的。2023-01-03 21:37:092
威尼斯商人英语简介
Venice, 1596. Melancholy Antonio loves the youthful Bassanio, so when Bassanio asks for 3000 ducats, Antonio says yes before knowing it"s to sue for the hand of Portia. His capital tied up in merchant ships at sea, Antonio must go to Shylock, a Jewish moneylender he reviles. Shylock wraps his grudge in kindness, offering a three-month loan at no interest, but if not repaid, Antonio will owe a pound of flesh. The Jew"s daughter elopes with a Christian, whetting Shylock"s hatred. While Bassanio"s away wooing Portia, Antonio"s ships founder, and Shylock demands his pound of flesh. With court assembled and a judgment due, Portia swings into action to save Bassanio"s friend.因为要简短的回答,这是很简单的梗概.故事还是比较曲折的,如果要说的完整一些,请看下面的,它的用词比较通俗,讲的挺明白,所有情节都在里面.Antonio, a Venetian merchant, complains to his friends of a melancholy that he cannot explain. His friend Bassanio is desperately in need of money to court Portia, a wealthy heiress who lives in the city of Belmont. Bassanio asks Antonio for a loan in order to travel in style to Portia"s estate. Antonio agrees, but is unable to make the loan himself because his own money is all invested in a number of trade ships that are still at sea. Antonio suggests that Bassanio secure the loan from one of the city"s moneylenders and name Antonio as the loan"s guarantor. In Belmont, Portia expresses sadness over the terms of her father"s will, which stipulates that she must marry the man who correctly chooses one of three caskets. None of Portia"s current suitors are to her liking, and she and her lady-in-waiting, Nerissa, fondly remember a visit paid some time before by Bassanio.In Venice, Antonio and Bassanio approach Shylock, a Jewish moneylender, for a loan. Shylock nurses a long-standing grudge against Antonio, who has made a habit of berating Shylock and other Jews for their usury, the practice of loaning money at exorbitant rates of interest, and who undermines their business by offering interest-free loans. Although Antonio refuses to apologize for his behavior, Shylock acts agreeably and offers to lend Bassanio three thousand ducats with no interest. Shylock adds, however, that should the loan go unpaid, Shylock will be entitled to a pound of Antonio"s own flesh. Despite Bassanio"s warnings, Antonio agrees. In Shylock"s own household, his servant Lancelot decides to leave Shylock"s service to work for Bassanio, and Shylock"s daughter Jessica schemes to elope with Antonio"s friend Lorenzo. That night, the streets of Venice fill up with revelers, and Jessica escapes with Lorenzo by dressing as his page. After a night of celebration, Bassanio and his friend Graziano leave for Belmont, where Bassanio intends to win Portia"s hand.In Belmont, Portia welcomes the prince of Morocco, who has come in an attempt to choose the right casket to marry her. The prince studies the inscriptions on the three caskets and chooses the gold one, which proves to be an incorrect choice. In Venice, Shylock is furious to find that his daughter has run away, but rejoices in the fact that Antonio"s ships are rumored to have been wrecked and that he will soon be able to claim his debt. In Belmont, the prince of Aragon also visits Portia. He, too, studies the caskets carefully, but he picks the silver one, which is also incorrect. Bassanio arrives at Portia"s estate, and they declare their love for one another. Despite Portia"s request that he wait before choosing, Bassanio immediately picks the correct casket, which is made of lead. He and Portia rejoice, and Graziano confesses that he has fallen in love with Nerissa. The couples decide on a double wedding. Portia gives Bassanio a ring as a token of love, and makes him swear that under no circumstances will he part with it. They are joined, unexpectedly, by Lorenzo and Jessica. The celebration, however, is cut short by the news that Antonio has indeed lost his ships, and that he has forfeited his bond to Shylock. Bassanio and Graziano immediately travel to Venice to try and save Antonio"s life. After they leave, Portia tells Nerissa that they will go to Venice disguised as men.Shylock ignores the many pleas to spare Antonio"s life, and a trial is called to decide the matter. The duke of Venice, who presides over the trial, announces that he has sent for a legal expert, who turns out to be Portia disguised as a young man of law. Portia asks Shylock to show mercy, but he remains inflexible and insists the pound of flesh is rightfully his. Bassanio offers Shylock twice the money due him, but Shylock insists on collecting the bond as it is written. Portia examines the contract and, finding it legally binding, declares that Shylock is entitled to the merchant"s flesh. Shylock ecstatically praises her wisdom, but as he is on the verge of collecting his due, Portia reminds him that he must do so without causing Antonio to bleed, as the contract does not entitle him to any blood. Trapped by this logic, Shylock hastily agrees to take Bassanio"s money instead, but Portia insists that Shylock take his bond as written, or nothing at all. Portia informs Shylock that he is guilty of conspiring against the life of a Venetian citizen, which means he must turn over half of his property to the state and the other half to Antonio. The duke spares Shylock"s life and takes a fine instead of Shylock"s property. Antonio also forgoes his half of Shylock"s wealth on two conditions: first, Shylock must convert to Christianity, and second, he must will the entirety of his estate to Lorenzo and Jessica upon his death. Shylock agrees and takes his leave.Bassanio, who does not see through Portia"s disguise, showers the young law clerk with thanks, and is eventually pressured into giving Portia the ring with which he promised never to part. Graziano gives Nerissa, who is disguised as Portia"s clerk, his ring. The two women return to Belmont, where they find Lorenzo and Jessica declaring their love to each other under the moonlight. When Bassanio and Graziano arrive the next day, their wives accuse them of faithlessly giving their rings to other women. Before the deception goes too far, however, Portia reveals that she was, in fact, the law clerk, and both she and Nerissa reconcile with their husbands. Lorenzo and Jessica are pleased to learn of their inheritance from Shylock, and the joyful news arrives that Antonio"s ships have in fact made it back safely. The group celebrates its good fortune.引用出处http://www.sparknotes.com/shakespeare/merchant/summary.html2023-01-03 21:37:321
关于英语里的宗教
不可知论无神论者baha"ist 佛教高台教基督教天主教基督教摩门教基督教和东正教会基督教新教儒学印度教iscon 伊斯兰教什叶派伊斯兰教逊尼派耆那教犹太教无宗教五旬科学神道锡克教道教2023-01-03 21:37:381
Jewish为什么翻译成犹太
为什么America叫美国,England叫英国????我国近代第一批开眼看世界的学者翻译的!就沿用下来了!2023-01-03 21:37:441
Jews与Jewish的区别
两个单词不一样写法不同读法也不同2023-01-03 21:38:002
Jewish能否作名词?
可以 =Yiddish 很高兴为你解答! 老师祝你学习进步! 望采纳,多谢你的问题!^_^2023-01-03 21:38:141
为何Jew被译为「犹太」而不是「尤太」?
Jew 是 Jewish - 犹太人但是Jew一般是不会用来称呼犹太人,因为怕让人反感。2023-01-03 21:38:301
"犹太人"英文怎么写?
犹太人JewYidZiongeesekike2023-01-03 21:38:453
Jew 有复数吗
你好!Jew(名词复数)Jews犹太人(Jews)东方犹太人OrientalJewJew(形容词)Jewish如果对你有帮助,望采纳。2023-01-03 21:38:581
为何Jew被译为「犹太」而不是「尤太」?
Jew是Jewish-犹太人但是Jew一般是不会用来称呼犹太人,因为怕让人反感。2023-01-03 21:39:041
jewish originality
The first era spanned from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second era was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, the diaspora has been the home of most of the world"s Jews.[4] Except in the modern State of Israel, established in 1948, Jews are a minority in every country in which they live and they have frequently experienced2023-01-03 21:39:112
我要写文章,哪个大哥知道哪里找Jewish culture的资料,要英文的
Origins of secular Jewish cultureFor at least 2,000 years, there has not been a unity of Jewish culture. Jews during this period were always geographically dispersed, so that by the 19th century the Ashkenazi Jews were mainly in Europe, especially Eastern Europe; the Sephardi Jews were largely spread among various communities in North Africa, Turkey, as well as various smaller communities in a diverse range of other locations, while Mizrahi Jews were primarily spread around the Arab world; and other populations of Jews were scattered in such places as Ethiopia the Caucasus, and India. (See Jewish ethnic divisions.) Many of these populations were cut off in some degree from the surrounding cultures by ghettoization, by the Muslim laws of dhimma, etc. By 1931, before the Holocaust, 92% of the world"s Jewish population was Ashkenazi in origin, and therefore much of what is thought of as "Jewish culture" is the Jewish culture of Central and Eastern Europe.Medieval Jewish communities in Eastern Europe developed distinct cultural traits over the centuries, but beginning with the Enlightenment (and its echo within Judaism in the Haskalah movement), many Yiddish-speaking Jews in Eastern Europe saw themselves as forming an ethnic or national group whose identity did not depend on religion. Constanin Măciucă writes of "a differentiated but not isolated Jewish spirit" permeating the culture of Yiddish-speaking Jews. This was only intensified as the rise of Romanticism increased the sense of national identity across Europe generally. Thus, for example, Bund members — that is, members of the General Jewish Labor Union in the late 19th and early 20th centuries — were generally non-religious, and one of the historical leaders of the Bund was the child of converts to Christianity, though not a practising or believing Christian himself. The Haskalah combined with the Jewish Emancipation movement under way in Central and Western Europe to create an opportunity for Jews to enter secular society. At the same time, pogroms in Eastern Europe created a migration, in large part to the United States, where 2 million Jewish immigrants arrived between 1880 and 1920. In the 1940s, The Holocaust resulted in the destruction of most of European Jewry, which, combined with the birth of Israel and the movement of Jews from Arab nations, created a further geographic shift. Defining secular culture among those who practice Judaism is difficult, because the entire culture is entwined with religious traditions. (This is particularly true of Orthodox Judaism.) Gary Tobin, head of the Institute for Jewish and Community Research, said of traditional Jewish culture:The dichotomy between religion and culture doesn"t really exist. Every religious attribute is filled with culture; every cultural act filled with religiosity. Synagogues themselves are great centers of Jewish culture. After all, what is life really about? Food, relationships, enrichment hellip; So is Jewish life. So many of our traditions inherently contain aspects of culture. Look at the Passover Seder—it"s essentially great theater. Jewish education and religiosity bereft of culture is not as interesting. [1]Yaakov Malkin, Professor of Aesthetics and Rhetoric at Tel Aviv University and the founder and academic director of Meitar College for Judaism as Culture [2] in Jerusalem, writes:Today very many secular Jews take part in Jewish cultural activities, such as celebrating Jewish holidays as historical and nature festivals, imbued with new content and form, or marking life-cycle events such as birth, bar/bat mitzvah, marriage, and mourning in a secular fashion. They come together to study topics pertaining to Jewish culture and its relation to other cultures, in havurot, cultural associations, and secular synagogues, and they participate in public and political action co-ordinated by secular Jewish movements, such as the former movement to free Soviet Jews, and movements to combat pogroms, discrimination, and religious coercion. Jewish secular humanistic education inculcates universal moral values through classic Jewish and world literature and through organizations for social change that aspire to ideals of justice and charity. [2][edit]LanguagesSee main article Jewish languages. Literary and theatrical expressions of secular Jewish culture may be in specifically Jewish languages such as Hebrew, Yiddish or Ladino, or it may be in the language of the surrounding cultures, such as English or German. Secular literature and theater in Yiddish largely began in the 19th century and was in decline by the middle of the 20th century. The revival of Hebrew beyond its use in the liturgy is largely an early 20th-century phenomenon, and is closely associated with Zionism. Generally, whether a Jewish community will speak a Jewish or non-Jewish language as its main vehicle of discourse is dependent on how isolated or assimilated that community is. For example, the Jews in the shtetls of Poland and the Lower East Side of New York (during the early 20th century) spoke Yiddish at most times, while assimilated Jews in Germany during the 19th century or the United States today would or do speak German or English in general.[edit]Politics and morals A Bundist demonstration, 1917See main article Jewish political movements. Even in religious Judaism there is much room for a range of political or moral views; this is only more so for secular Jews. However, even Jewish secular culture is often strongly influenced by moral beliefs deriving from Jewish scripture and tradition. In recent centuries, Jews in Europe and the Americas have traditionally tended towards the political left, and played key roles in the birth of the labor movement as well as socialism. While Diaspora Jews have also been represented in the conservative side of the political spectrum, even politically conservative Jews have tended to support pluralism more consistently than many other elements of the political right. Some scholars [3] attribute this to the fact that Jews are not expected to proselytize, and as a result do not expect a single world-state, which differs from the beliefs of many religions, such as the Roman Catholic and Islamic traditions; rather, since in Jewish theology the religions of most nations are respected, there was never any perceived reason to convert others. This lack of a universalizing religion is combined with the fact that most Jews live as minorities in their countries, and that no central Jewish religious authority has existed for over 2,000 years. (See also list of Jews in politics, which illustrates the diversity of Jewish political thought and of the roles Jews have played in politics.)[edit]"Jewish" professionsSome professions have traditionally been considered particularly "Jewish," partially as a result of historical circumstances. These include banking and finance, law, medicine, science, and academia. See also Court Jew.[edit]Banking and finance Albert Einstein on the cover of TIME as Person of the Century.In most of Europe up until the late 18th century, and in some places to an even later date, Jews were prohibited by Roman Catholic governments (and others) from owning land. On the other hand, the Church, because of a number of Bible verses forbidding usury, declared that charging any interest was against the divine law, and this prevented any mercantile use of capital by pious Christians. As the Canon law did not apply to Jews, they were not liable to the ecclesiastical punishments which were placed upon usurers by the popes. Christian rulers gradually saw the advantage of having a class of men like the Jews who could supply capital for their use without being liable to excommunication, and the money trade of western Europe by this means fell into the hands of the Jews. However, in almost every instance where large amounts were acquired by Jews through banking transactions the property thus acquired fell either during their life or upon their death into the hands of the king. This happened to Aaron of Lincoln in England, Ezmel de Ablitas in Navarre, Heliot de Vesoul in Provence, Benveniste de Porta in Aragon, etc. It was for this reason indeed that the kings supported the Jews, and even objected to their becoming Christians, because in that case they could not have forced from them money won by usury. Thus both in England and in France the kings demanded to be compensated for every Jew converted. The result was the stereotypical Jewish role as bankers and merchants.[edit]Medicine, science, and academiaAlso, the strong Jewish tradition of religious scholarship often left Jews well prepared for secular scholarship, although in some times and places this was countered by Jews being banned from studying at universities, or admitted only in limited numbers (see Jewish quota). In medieval and early modern times, Jews were disproportionately represented among court physicians. Even into recent times Jews were little represented in the land-holding classes, but far better represented in academia, the learned professions, finance and commerce. The strong representation of Jews in science and academia is represented in the fact that at least 167 Jews and persons of half-Jewish ancestry have been awarded the Nobel Prize, accounting for 22% of all individual recipients worldwide between 1901 and 2004. In addition, of TIME magazine"s 100 most influential people of the 20th century, fourteen persons listed are either of Jewish ancestry or have converted to Judaism.[edit]Literary and artistic cultureIn some places where there have been relatively high concentrations of Jews, distinct secular Jewish subcultures have arisen. For example, ethnic Jews formed an enormous proportion of the literary and artistic life of Vienna, Austria at the end of the 19th century, or of New York City 50 years later (and Los Angeles in the mid-late 20th century), and for the most part these were not particularly religious people. In general, however, Jewish artistic culture in various periods reflected the culture in which they lived.[edit]LiteratureSee main articles Yiddish literature, Ladino literature, Hebrew literature, Jewish American literature, English Jewish literature. Also see Jews in literature and journalism. Jewish authors have both created a unique Jewish literature and contributed to the national literatures of many of the countries in which they live. Though not strictly secular, the Yiddish works of authors like Sholom Aleichem (whose collected works amounted to 28 volumes) and Isaac Bashevis Singer (winner of the 1978 Nobel Prize), form their own canon, focusing on the Jewish experience in both Eastern Europe, and in America. In the United States, Jewish writers like Philip Roth, Saul Bellow, and many others are considered among the greatest American authors, and incorporate a distinctly secular Jewish view into many of their works. Other famous Jewish authors that made contributions to world literature include Heinrich Heine, German poet, Isaac Babel, Russian author, and Franz Kafka, of Prague.In "Modern Judaism An Oxford Guide," Yaakov Malkin, Professor of Aesthetics and Rhetoric at Tel Aviv University and the founder and academic director of Meitar College for Judaism as Culture in Jerusalem, writes:Secular Jewish culture embraces literary works that have stood the test of time as sources of aesthetic pleasure and ideas shared by Jews and non-Jews, works that live on beyond the immediate socio-cultural context within which they were created. They include the writings of such Jewish authors as Sholem Aleichem, Itzik Manger, Isaac Bashevis Singer, Philip Roth, Saul Bellow, S.Y. Agnon, Isaac Babel, Martin Buber, Isaiah Berlin, H.N. Bialik, Yehuda Amichai, Amos Oz, A.B. Yehoshua, and David Grossman. It boasts masterpieces that have had a considerable influence on all of western culture, Jewish culture included - works such as those of Heinrich Heine, Gustav Mahler, Leonard Bernstein, Marc Chagall, Jacob Epstein, Ben Shahn, Amadeo Modigliani, Franz Kafka, Max Reinhardt (Goldman), Ernst Lubitsch, and Woody Allen. [4][edit]Theatre[edit]Yiddish theatreSee main article Yiddish theatre. The Ukrainian Jew Abraham Goldfaden founded the first professional Yiddish-language theatre troupe in Iaşi, Romania in 1876. The next year, his troupe achieved enormous success in Bucharest. Within a decade, Goldfaden and others brought Yiddish theater to Ukraine, Russia, Poland, Germany, New York City, and other cities with significant Ashkenazic populations. Between 1890 and 1940, over a dozen Yiddish theatre groups existed in New York City alone, performing original plays, musicals, and Yiddish translations of theatrical works and opera. Perhaps the most famous of Yiddish-language plays is The Dybbuk (1919) by S. Ansky.Yiddish theater in New York in the early 20th Century rivalled English-language theater in quantity and often surpassed it in quality. A 1925 New York Times article remarks, "…Yiddish theater… is now a stable American institution and no longer dependent on immigration from Eastern Europe. People who can neither speak nor write Yiddish attend Yiddish stage performances and pay Broadway prices on Second Avenue." This article also mentions other aspects of a New York Jewish cultural life "in full flower" at that time, among them the fact that the extensive New York Yiddish-language press of the time included seven daily newspapers. [5]In fact, however, the next generation of American Jews spoke mainly English to the exclusion of Yiddish; they brought the artistic energy of Yiddish theater into the American theatrical mainstream, but2023-01-03 21:39:201
雾都孤儿的英文背景
Charles DIckens"s Oliver TwistOliver Twist: The Parish Boy抯 ProgressCharles Dickens created an astonishing collection of literary masterpieces each of which tightly grasped the attention of the audience. Dickens was able to maintain a writing schedule that would have exhausted any other author. In slightly more than thirty years, Dickens published more than twenty novels, acted as editor for a variety of literary journals, created his own magazine, worked as a freelance reporter, and executed a series of charismatic public readings. His popularity established Dickens as one of the first 揷elebrities.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> Crowds brimming with eager fans would accumulate as Dickens bellowed out the charming lines of his tantalizing novels. His significance and notoriety are still easily identified in contemporary literary cannons. Although his books sold and the audience waited on edge for the next installment of his works, Dickens was not given completely favorable reviews to every text. Oliver Twist was begun in February 1837 and continued as monthly installments in Bentley抯 Miscellany until April of 1839. Dickens originally titled the novel Oliver Twist: The Parish Boy抯 Progress but it has since been shorten to simply Oliver Twist. Dickens finished writing the novel in the London of 1838 and the first edition of the novel was found on shelves in November of 1838. The novel falls into the genre of a children抯 detective story but the novel also contains an aspect of social protest as Dickens details the Poor Laws and workhouses. Dickens uses his hyperbolic irony and sentimentalism to create characters currently residing in the underworld of industrial London. The themes that appear within the text are the delineation between good and evil, the hypocritical attitudes and behaviors of public institutions, and the ultimately flawed theory of individualism. Dickens uses mistaken identities and familial ties to create a story, which closely details the journey of a virtuous orphan through the mean streets of poverty (Spark Notes: Oliver Twist).While Dickens was composing Oliver Twist, he was also working as editor of Bentleys Miscellany. As an author, Dickens rarely completely finished one work before beginning an entirely new project. For example, Pickwick Papers was not completed prior to his beginning of Oliver Twist. Nor was Oliver Twist completed before Dickens had moved on to Nicholas Nickleby. Master Humphrey抯 Clock and The Old Curiosity Shop were soon to follow. Dickens wrote at a fevered pace which would have been daunting to other authors. In addition to his rapid publication of novels, Dickens was also able to create strikingly differing works. His first serially published novel, Pickwick Papers, was fully of comic charisma; however, Gilbert Keith Chesterton states that Oliver Twist 搃s by far the most depressing of all his books?(Chesterton). Oliver Twist is the story of an orphan who unwittingly stumbles upon his hidden fortune. The tale is one that vividly depicts the dismal prospects of one born into a workhouse without parents and is forced to survive on little or no compassion. Oliver is unloved and unwanted from the open of the novel. However, as the novel progresses, Oliver finds that his honest and kind disposition win him a variety of friends in high places. Although Fagin and the other street urchins continually seek to ruin Oliver抯 connections, Oliver抯 faithful heart find a home in the end. The novel demonstrates the benefits of a good will that may be found in the most unlikely of people. Oliver抯 merits carry him through life and away from the poverty that capture those with weaker morals. In the conclusion of the tale, Oliver finds himself among those with equally good manners and morals. His situation is only improved through the inevitable triumph of good over evil.Dickens initially published Oliver Twist in the format of serial publication. Dickens used the process of creating monthly installments to create a high level of suspense, leaving the audience eagerly awaiting the next installment in the series. Oliver Twist was reportedly 揳 part of everyday conversations, just as top rated television shows are for us today.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> Dickens effectively used the publishing techniques to his benefit; he was able to work the system (Oliver Twist桾he Author and His Times).Interestingly, Dickens抯 personal environment was greatly shaken in both a happy manner and a sad one during the publishing of Oliver Twist. In May of 1837 Mary Hogarth died, devastating Dickens. Hogarth, his sister-in-law, was a dear friend and supporter of Dickens. Many critics speculate that the characters of Rose and Nancy were modeled after Dickens?companion Mary Hogarth. After Hogarth抯 death, Dickens feelings of abandonment seep into the world of Oliver. Oliver fears the loss of Rose as Dickens mourns the loss of Mary (Oliver Twist桾he Author and His Times). Catherine Dickens was also reported to have given birth to Charles, the first of ten children during this time (Victorian Web). The splendor of a new baby was contrasted with the great loss of a close friend. Dickens, in fact, was forced to take a break from his busy writing schedule to cope with the drastic changes that took place in his personal life at this time. The Poor Laws were established prior to the publication of the novel. The Poor Laws, according to The Victorian Web, were created to destroy the relief programs that were in play since 1601. The Poor Laws generated a system of workhouses. The workhouses allowed for a program of assistance that did not merely dole out money but rather doled out food, shelter, and clothing. The Poor Laws provided an answer to the declining laws that were supporting the impoverished. The problems were obvious: the current system left the aged uncared for, the children ignorant and uneducated, and the lower class population starving. King George III proposed a plan to:Stop the allowance system梩o deprive the magistracy of the power of ordering out-door relief梩o alter in certain case the constitution of parochial vestries梩o give large discretionary powers to the central commissioners梩o simplify the law of settlement and removal梩o render the mother of an illegitimate child liable to support it. Dickens[1] 366However, the workhouses proved to be yet another place to shove the poor. The theory may have been formed from noble ideals but the foundations were flawed. The boundaries and faults of the Poor Laws are blatantly exemplified in Oliver Twist. Oliver is forced to suffer the indignities of starvation, brutal treatment, and is damned to life in a workhouse. Dickens used his artistic talents to speak for the silent, to fight for the oppressed, and to champion those defeated. Dickens himself states: 揑t was my attempt, in my humble and far distant sphere, to dim the false glitter surrounding something which really did exist, by showing it in its unattractive and repulsive truth?(Dickens 6). Dickens used his literary engine to fuel the debate over the Poor Laws and to reveal the reality that so many unfortunate souls were forced to inhabit. The novel was received in a variety of ways. Many hailed the novel as a 搑unaway bestseller?and an encore to the highly prized Pickwick Papers. On the other hand, the Jewish population as well as other critics found the novel to be far too sentimental and lacking. One of the major issues raised by an entire community against the novels was the portrayal Fagin, the evil Jew. Milton Kerker in his article 揅harles Dickens, Fagin and Riah?states that Fagin may be the 搈ost grotesgue and villainous Jew in all of English literature.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> Fagin was found by the Jewish community to be a ruffian with the devil dwelling within his cold heart. In 1854 the Jewish Chronicle was outraged and presented the public with this criticism of Dickens. Later in 1863, Eliza Davis writes Dickens to question his portrayal of Fagin. Dickens responds to Davis by stating:I must take leave to say, that if there be any general feeling on the part of the intelligent Jewish people, that I have done them what you describe as 揳 great wrong,?they are a far less sensible, a far less just, and a far less good-tempered people than I have always supposed them to be. Fagin, in Oliver Twist, is a Jew, because it unfortunately was true of the time to which that story refers, that that class of criminal almost invariably was a Jew. Dickens 378The public did not openly object to the portrayal of Fagin until several years after the novel was originally published. However, despite the fact that Dickens maintained his innocence, Dickens did attempt to make alterations in the next edition of the novel to correct this offensive implication. In the 1867 edition of chapter 38, Fagin is referred to as 搕he Jew?more than 250 times. However, in later chapters he is referred to as 搕he Jew?only 32 times. This is thought to have been Dickens抯 attempt to reconcile Fagin抯 character with the Jewish community. Despite this characterization of Fagin and Dickens抯 wording changes, Dickens never openly abused a Jewish person nor did he openly practice anti-Semitic opinions (Kerker).Likewise, the Monthly Review of January 1839 demanded that Dickens used characters that are so low that sympathy cannot be created. The reviewer feels that although there were comic pieces worth noting, the ending does not comply with the standard notion that the evil ones must face strict consequences while the just are rewarded. The reviewer does not go so far as to claim Dickens to be an immoral writer but he does not treat the characters with the morals that would classify Dickens with the 揾ighest rank of our moral fictionists.?Dickens is yet again commended for openly stating the plea of the downtrodden but in this reviewer抯 opinion, the downtrodden are not moral enough to place Dickens in a higher class of fiction novelists (Dickens 403-405).Just as the Monthly Review questions the worth of such characters as Nancy, William Makepeace Thackeray also claims that such characters are not worth the sympathy or the attention of the audience. Thackeray does allow for Dickens抯 popularity but questions his use of setting and characters. True, Dickens can charm an audience like none other. True, one must continually read Dickens to satisfy some strange need. Unfortunately, the fact remains that Thackeray does not believe there is much to be gained by closely examining the life of the poor and forgotten (Dickens 408-410). In the opinion of Thackeray, would it not be much more prudent to bestow such kind sympathies upon a worthier class of characters? Character such as Amelia Osborne and Becky Sharp are worthy of moral scrutiny but Oliver Twist and the like shall remain in the gutter, below the view of the mainstream population.Early reviews from The Examiner, September 10,1837, claim that this novel is an 揺xact painting?of the reality Dickens wished to present to the public. Dickens was praised for his capture of the emotions surrounding death of Nancy and the detailing of Oliver抯 life as an orphan. Although the reviewer is surprised to see Dickens making use of the Poor Law Debates in the first chapters of the novel, the reviewer understands the philanthropy that Dickens is attempting to inspire (Dickens 399-401). In conclusion of this review, the author states: 揥e leave him most reluctantly, and so will every read who has any capacity to see and feel whatsoever is most loveable, hateful, or laughable, in the character of the everyday life about him?(401).The Spectator states on November 24, 1838, that Dickens 揾as genius to vivify his observation.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> Dickens is complimented for his powerful use of pathos and his description of truth. The reviewer admires Dickens抯 ability to find good in all humanity despite the dirty surroundings of unfortunates such as Oliver. Dickens抯 style is commended to be capable of an effective use of language while never sounding forced (Dickens 401-402).The Literary Gazette, and Journal of the Belles Lettres declares on November 24, 1838, that Dickens has 背ug deep into the human mind; and he has nobly directed his energies to the exposure of evils梩he workhouse, the starving school, the factory system, and many other things, at which blessed nature shudder and recoiled.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> Dickens抯 ability to capture the suffering of Oliver intrigues the reading audience. Those who are far removed from the factories and the workhouses are suddenly acutely aware of the plea of the poor and the corruption of the Poor Laws. Dickens抯 has made a successful journey into social activism with the guidance of Oliver and his band of companions (Dickens 402-403).The Quarterly Review of 1839 published a glowing review of the novel. The reviewer believed Dickens to be 揳 sign of the times?and as such, he provoked 搈ore interest than that of Halley抯 comet.?SPAN style="mso-spacerun: yes"> The reviewer felt that not only did he write just enough and not too much, but also he wrote with enough vigor to demand that the public read the next installment. His popularity was unparalleled and his installments were always immediately read. Dickens manages to tell of 搑eal pain?while the novel lacks in false sentimentalism (Dickens 405-408). The reviewer states: 揌e deals truly with human nature, which never can degrade; he takes up everything, good, bad, or indifferent, which he works up into a rich alluvial deposit. He is natural, and that neve2023-01-03 21:39:261
german-jewish是什么意思
德国犹太人,2023-01-03 21:39:321
Jewish diaspora 什么意思
海外犹太人,犹太散居族裔者2023-01-03 21:39:411